This is the second article in a two-part series. Here the author shares some of the work being done at the Aotearoa Permaculture Workshop (APW) and Resilio Studio to strengthen the science, art and practice of forest gardening in Aotearoa, the Māori name for New Zealand. You can read the first article here, where the author explores how global food systems and social change intersect.
Forest gardening in Aotearoa
Forest gardening has been practised by Indigenous people around the world for millennia. And while there is increasing interest in forest gardening, the available resources tend to be either too general or specific to locations and climates that are not necessarily relevant to us here in Aotearoa (the Māori name for New Zealand). A good example of this is revealed through a brief internet search. In this search, you will likely find people sharing how a forest has seven layers – ground cover, canopy, emergent layers, etc. Well, yes and no.
Yes, forests in tropical climates have seven, even nine layers; however, here in Aotearoa, our temperate, broadleaf conifer forests have five layers, and our beech forests have between two and four. If forest gardening is going to play a role in building a parallel food system here, we think there is value in exploring forest gardening better suited to Aotearoa’s ecosystems. Over the last decade, my colleagues and I at Aotearoa Permaculture Workshop (APW) and Resilio Studio have been researching forest gardening to help fill this niche.
For the last 10,000 or so years and for much of her 65-million-year history as a collection of islands, Aotearoa has been and still could be a forested landscape. Because much of Aotearoa is naturally forested and has a relatively mild climate, it is particularly well-suited to forest gardening.
A forest garden is a garden designed and tended with the layers and complexity of a forest in mind. While not as productive as commercially grown crops that focus on single yields, a forest garden offers similar benefits across a greater diversity of harvests – food, fibre, fuel and medicine – while regenerating ecosystems, providing multiple ecosystem functions, and building resilience. This is true of most places, particularly in areas of land less suitable to intensive cropping.
When we think of a forest garden as a biodiverse, multi-layered orchard, it helps us consider different types of forest gardens suited to different climates, much as broadleaf conifer forests or beech forests reflect underlying landscape patterns. In this sense, there are four broad types of forest gardens – tropical, subtropical, Mediterranean and deciduous, each responding to different climatic and geographic conditions.
Most places around the world are well suited to one or two types of forest garden – the cold winters and mild summers in the northern latitudes of the northern hemisphere support deciduous forest gardens, but little else, while the warm summers, mild winters, and limited rainfall of the Mediterranean are well suited to Mediterranean forest gardens. Unlike many countries, Aotearoa can support three distinct types of forest gardens: subtropical, Mediterranean, and deciduous.
Subtropical forest gardens
The subtropical climate has warm, humid summers and cool, mild winters. Subtropical forests have dense canopies with five layers, similar to the broadleaf conifer forests of Aotearoa. Soils are typically rich and loamy. Species might include avocado and inga bean canopy trees; a sub-canopy layer of banana palms, papaya, and tamarillo; hibiscus shrub layers and ground covers of nertera.
In Aotearoa, areas suitable for subtropical forest gardening include Te Tai Tokerau/Northland, Tāmaki Makaurau/Auckland, and microclimates throughout the Whakatū/Nelson rohe and Tauranga Moana/Bay of Plenty.
Syntropic agroforestry is a form of forest gardening well suited to fast-growing tropical and subtropical climates and species that emphasises natural forest succession, utilising precise pruning and planting timelines to accelerate ecosystem regeneration.
Deciduous forest gardens
The deciduous climate has varying temperatures with four distinct seasons. Deciduous forests have open canopies with 3-4 layers, similar to the beech forests of Aotearoa. Soils are typically fertile and hold nutrients during dormant seasons. Species could include emergent pear, plum, and persimmon canopy trees, blueberry and echinacea shrub layers, and chamomile and strawberry ground covers.
In Aotearoa, areas suitable for deciduous forest gardening include the Waikato basin, the Taranaki rohe, much of lower Te Ika-a-Māui/North Island, and food-growing areas of Te Wai Pounamu/South Island.
Mediterranean forest gardens
The Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and cool, damp winters. The trees in Mediterranean forests are widely spaced and have open canopies with three layers. Trees require full sun and good air circulation to minimise fungal diseases. Soils are typically free-draining. Species might include olive, fig, and pomegranate canopy trees; rosemary, lavender, and sage shrub layers, with ground covers of thyme and oregano.
In Aotearoa, areas suitable for Mediterranean forest gardening include the east coast of Te Ika-a-Māui/North Island and Te Wai Pounamu/South Island. More broadly across Aotearoa, climate models suggest that we will experience warmer, drier climates in the coming decades and centuries, meaning that we can anticipate larger areas of Aotearoa being suited to Mediterranean forest gardens.
Forest garden guide for Aotearoa
For the last 15 years, we have been researching and practising forest gardening around the upper North Island. Based on this work and experience, we have developed a guide that provides practical advice on the science, art, and practice of forest gardening in Aotearoa. We have done our best to make it accessible and replicable to anyone interested in forest gardening. We hope this will contribute to a diverse and growing community of forest gardeners who develop and refine ecologically responsive and regenerative food systems in Aotearoa.
This is what Australian environmental designer and ecologist David Holmgren said about it in 2025:
“The forest garden concept has been central to permaculture horticulture experimentation around the world for many decades. This design-focused guide distils lessons learnt and models for the next generation of forest gardens in Aotearoa.”
